*Published in Australian Biologist, June 1998, Volume 11 Number 2.
Abstract
We, the indigenous people of the world, want to be independent from foreign cultures and to keep alive the traditions and customs which give meaning to our existence. Eating wildlife, including flying foxes, is one of these traditions and in Australia has been a part of life for 60,000 years or more. The harvests of wildlife by indigenous peoples are far more sustainable than the sheep or wheat farming happening in Australia today. In the past, harvests relied on harpoons, spears, throwing sticks, natural fibre nets, canoes, etc., but now a combination of old and new methods are used. This represents a natural evolution of tradition, just as the traditional Christmas roast is no longer hunted but bought from a supermarket. Indigenous people are very interested in harvesting wildlife commercially as it would help to maintain traditional diets, build on traditional knowledge and skills, and provide income and employment to poor rural communities.
Introduction
At a global level, indigenous people want to be independent from foreign cultures and to control their own lives, land and marine resources. This should be an understandable desire of any people whose government is dominated by an invading culture. In Australia, 200 years of social, economic, political and cultural exploitation and suppression have been difficult to bear. We (Torres Strait Islanders) are still afraid of losing our culture, identity, traditional beliefs and aspirations (Kehoe-Forutan 1988).
Globally the rights of indigenous people are protected by the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights and the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Australia signed these two treaties in 1966. As a signatory, the Australian Government is committed to uphold the democratic and human rights such as 'to participate in government, personal liberty and security, protection against unemployment, cultural freedom, family security, food, health and adequate standard of living' (AIDAB 1992) of its indigenous people.
More recently, the Australian Government recognised the traditional right of Torres Strait Islanders to take wildlife without restriction through the 1985 Torres Strait Treaty with Papua New Guinea (Harris & Dews 1995). The general importance of wildlife harvests to indigenous people is recognised more generally in the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biodiversity (ANZECC 1994).
Today we hunt traditional foods (dugong, sea turtle, fish, etc.) using a combination of old and new technologies (c.f. Beckett 1987, Finch 1977, Marsh & Saafield 1990, Moore 1978, Nona 1990). We used to catch flying foxes using bows and arrows, throwing sticks and long poles which knocked them from trees or while flying low (D. Bon, pers. comm.; C. Missi, pers. obs.). Of course today we use guns, in addition to these other methods. No one asks white people to use 200 year old methods to produce sheep, wheat or other foods. The traditional Christmas roast is bought from a supermarket, not hunted. Who in this room regularly collects their own food from the land or sea? How sustainable are the farming practices which keep you alive?
We live in harmony with nature, and have an intimate understanding of the seasons, winds and tides and their effect on animals of the land and sea (Moore 1978, Sharp 1992). We have used this understanding to sustainably harvest animals for at least 60,000 years (Bomford & Caughley 1996, CLC & NLC 1995). Our culture and traditions specifically demand that we do not deplete our wildlife resources - it was and remains essential for our survival.
Unfortunately many people, and probably some people here today, would deny us access to wildlife. People who believe in animal rights are opposed to killing any animal, even farmed ones. These people's beliefs are strong, and I respect them, but I emphasise that these beliefs are not superior to ours. If this cannot be accepted, then we have the makings of another 'Holy War', and it could start in the High Court of Australia.
In a recent case in Queensland, Murrandoo Yanner was first found not guilty of killing a crocodile, but on appeal, and in a split decision, was found guilty of the charge (Niesche 1998). The case will now go to the High Court for a final determination. The outcome of this will have implications of a magnitude similar to the Mabo and Wik High Court cases. Given what has gone before, I am confident that traditional hunting rights will be recognised, as they have been in Canada and New Zealand. I hope that common sense will prevail. Can you image the outcry if eating beef or pork was made illegal!
Historically, Torres Strait Islanders were not only hunters and gathers but great traders as well. Our forefathers travelled in big dual outrigger sailing canoes, trading many commodities, such as canoes, drums, cassowary and bird-of-paradise feathers, bows and arrows, wives, etc. Trade was with the people of Papua New Guinea of the Fly River basin (Beckett 1987, Sharpe 1993) and the Aboriginal Nations of Cape York (Moore 1978). We would like to build on our traditional trading culture, using our knowledge of natural resources to develop sustainable industries that support our people culturally and economically.
In multicultural Australia it seems that the traditional diets of every culture, except indigenous Australians, are celebrated. Chinese, Italians, Mexicans, Thais and Indonesians all have access to the ingredients necessary for them to continue their traditional diets away from home. Except for emu and kangaroo, most indigenous Australians have very limited access to traditional food once they leave their country.
Many indigenous peoples live in big cities and there is a great demand for some traditional foods (Vardon et al. 1997). Supplying this market would create income and jobs for indigenous people living in the communities and in the cities. People in the communities could catch and process and transport wildlife, and people in the cities could package and sell wildlife products. This would help us become economically and socially independent. No one wants to rely on government handouts forever. It would also assist indigenous people to adapt more readily to big city life in a foreign culture.
Flying foxes are one traditional food and medicine which could be sustainably harvested for commercial purposes. We have harvested these animals and others sustainably in the past, and have traditional knowledge of their interaction with the environment. Of course studies would have to be done to determine the best place for this to occur and to develop appropriate management techniques for sustainable harvesting (Vardon & Tidemann 1995). But flying foxes are just one of a number of species which could form a larger wildlife industry. Farming sea turtles and crocodiles are particular interests of mine (see Webb et al. 1996).
The sustainable use of wildlife has helped indigenous people in Australia (Bomford & Caughley 1996) and overseas (e.g. Carpenter 1995) to gain economic freedom without damaging the environment. If we cannot use wildlife then the alternative is to develop resources and industries which are known to be environmentally destructive, for example, cattle ranching, cotton growing and wheat farming, just to mention a few.
Conclusion
Over the past 60,000 years we have successfully managed our natural environment to provide for our cultural and physical needs. We have no need to study the non-indigenous concepts of the precautionary principle, intergenerational equity, conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of wildlife. For us, they are already incorporated within our traditions. We have a holistic approach to life - the environment and our culture are one in the same. We have a lifetime commitment to protect and sustainably use our natural resources.
Yet, we are prevented from using our skills, knowledge and natural resources for traditional or commercial purposes by people who do not understand us, people who are struggling to come to terms with the sustainable use of the natural resources. The values and laws of non-indigenous people greatly constrain our activities, but non-indigenous peoples have no right to interfere with our customs, nor dictate the way in which we use and manage our natural resources. Continued interference will produce a situation which suits no one, as is the case in New Zealand (Wright et al. 1995).
I urge all people here to reconsider carefully their attitude towards harvesting flying foxes and other wild species. Harvesting and eating wildlife is a vital part of indigenous cultures and it can be much more sustainable than the economic alternatives (Turner & Nugent 1995). The commercial use of wildlife can provide communities with on-going income and employment which builds on traditional knowledge and skills. To achieve this we will work with the wider Australian community, but our rights and traditions must be recognised and respected. This is essential for reconciliation.
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